he menhaden is a remarkable citizen of the sea. Inedible to humans because of its bones, it provides forage for a number of other fish species. The menhaden is a filter feeder, scooping up large amounts of water and consuming both phytoplankton and zooplankton, leaving "cleaner" water. Spawned in the ocean, the menhaden travel in large schools of similarly-aged menhaden to the coastal estuaries where they feed before returning to the ocean to spawn at about age 2. A typical menhaden grows to about 12 to 15" and lives about 3 to 5 years.

Because menhaden travel in large schools, most are caught by the purse seine method; boats circle the school with a net, draw the net close to a larger vessel where the menhaden are pumped out of the net into a refrigerated hold. Because of the compactness of the schools of menhaden, the measured bycatch (non-menhaden), measured numerous times over many years, is less than 1%. Currently about 15 to 20% of Atlantic menhaden are harvested by the bait fishery and the balance by the reduction, or feed and oil, industry.

The reduction industry has gradually migrated from its New England roots to the South. Labor, fuel and property costs have moved the reduction industry to the southeastern Atlantic and the Gulf coast states. Today the Gulf menhaden provide about 75% of the reduction industry's catch, and the Atlantic menhaden about 25%.

Today's market for menhaden products is diverse and growing. The meal made from menhaden provides a unique, high-protein blend of nutrients and is a component of many cattle, swine, poultry and aquaculture feeds where it improves growth rates. The oil pressed from menhaden, which is rich in heart healthy Omega 3 fatty acids, is a FDA approved health food additive. The high Omega 3 fish oil is an ingredient of enriched foods including pasta sauces, salad dressings, sports drinks, baked goods and soups. Menhaden oil is also mixed with other ingredients for cooking oils and shortenings, marine lubricants, plasticizers, alkyed resins, and oils for paint and lipstick. The menhaden oil has been popular for many years in Europe as a health food supplement and as a primary ingredient in margarine.

The menhaden reduction industry employs over 2,000 people, the majority of which are African-American, and provides unique and vital products for a variety of America's markets. Without the domestic menhaden reduction industry, America's needs would be filled by foreign suppliers.

Atlantic menhaden have supported one of the United States' largest fisheries since colonial times. Landings records indicate that over 18 million metric tons of Atlantic menhaden have been caught by fishing fleets operating from Maine to Florida since 1940.

The early menhaden purse seine fishery utilized sailing vessels, while coal-fired steamers were introduced after the Civil War. In the 1930's, diesel-powered vessels began to replace the steamers, although a few sailing vessels were still in use.

<graphics/photo_fisherman.jpg> Currently, commercial menhaden purse seine fishing operations utilize spotter aircraft to locate schools of menhaden and direct vessels to the fish. When a school is located, two purse boats with a net stretched between them are deployed. The purse boats encircle the school and close the net to form a purse or bag. The net is then retrieved to concentrate the catch, and the mother ship comes alongside and pumps the catch into refrigerated holds.

Over the years, vessels participating in the Atlantic menhaden purse seine fishery have varied considerably in size, fishing methods, gear type and intensity of effort. During the early 1960s, the commercial menhaden fleet experienced significant changes as larger, faster vessels replaced outdated models. Today, a total of only 12 reduction vessels operate along the entire Atlantic coast. These vessels range from 166 to 200 feet in length and typically carry two purse boats approximately 39 feet in length.

All twelve vessels in the menhaden fleet currently utilize refrigerated fish holds. Refrigeration enables vessels to deliver better quality raw material and serves to increase vessel range and extend time on the fishing grounds.

During peak landing years (1953-1962), an average of 112 vessels with a mean vessel capacity of about 678,000 standard fish supplied the industry. The fleet landed daily catches at 20 menhaden reduction plants from New York to Florida. In comparison, the 1990 fleet of 33 vessels, which operated within a more restrictive and regulated environment, landed their catch at five plants, including foreign processing vessels. Today, the current fleet of 12 vessels unloads menhaden at only two ports, Reedville, Virginia and Beaufort, North Carolina. Economic pressures rather than resource considerations have led to the consolidation of the industry in recent

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The Chesapeake Bay area (including the mid-Atlantic area) accounted for about 77% of the Atlantic menhaden landings in 1990 and about 73% during the 1980-1990 period. Plants in the north and south Atlantic areas, including one plant active during the fall fishery, processed about 27% of the annual landings. Three plants located in Virginia and North Carolina processed about 90% of the harvest.

In 1991, Chesapeake Bay, including the mid-Atlantic area, accounted for about 74% of the menhaden landings. The North Atlantic area contributed most of the balance of the landings, while the south Atlantic area contributed the remainder. The catch was landed at shoreside processing plants in Beaufort, North Carolina; Reedville, Virginia. (2 plants); and Blacks Harbour, N.B., Canada. A Russian factory ship anchored at various locations within the territorial waters of southern Maine also processed menhaden under an IWP arrangement.

As no menhaden landings for reduction have occurred in New England since the summer of 1993, landings of Atlantic menhaden for reduction have been made exclusively by the Virginia and North Carolina vessels at Reedville, Virginia and Beaufort, North Carolina. Between 1994-1997, the factories at Reedville processed an average 89% of the Atlantic menhaden catch for reduction; the remainder was unloaded at Beaufort. The Reedville plant is one of the major employers in Virginia's Northern Neck and one of the largest employers of African-Americans in the state.

Recently, summarized catch estimates of menhaden vessel captains in the Virginia and North Carolina fleets (excluding New England vessels) from Captains Daily Fishing Reports (CDFR 's) during 1985-96 indicated that, on average, over the twelve year study period, 52% of the catch by the Virginia and North Carolina fleets came from the Virginia portion of Chesapeake Bay, 17% was caught in North Carolina coastal waters, 16% in Virginia ocean waters, and 15% in ocean waters of Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland and Delaware Bay combined. However, the New Jersey portion of Delaware Bay has been closed to the reduction fishery since mid-1989, the Delaware portion in mid-1992, and most of Long Island Sound has now been closed to the reduction fishery.

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Menhaden reduction plants, through a process of heating, separating, and drying, produce fish meal, fish oil, and fish solubles from fresh menhaden. Meal is a valuable ingredient in poultry and livestock feeds because of its high protein content (at least 60%). The broiler (chicken) industry is currently the largest user of menhaden meal, followed by the turkey, swine, pet food, and ruminant industries. The aquaculture industry has recently demonstrated an increased demand for fish meal as well.

Menhaden oil has been used for many years as an edible oil in Europe. The oil is refined and used extensively in cooking oils and margarine. In 1989, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that fully and partially hydrogenated menhaden oil is a safe ingredient for human consumption. In 1990, the FDA proposed an amendment, based on an industry petition, to the standard of identity for margarine to permit the use of marine oils. It was approved in 1997 and could provide a significant new market for omega-3 rich menhaden oil.

Solubles are the aqueous liquid component remaining after oil removal. In general, most meal producers add the soluble component to the meal to create a product termed "full meal." The use of solubles as an export product is limited because most companies in the feed industry are not equipped with the necessary storage tanks, pumps, and meters to handle a liquid product.

The world fish meal industry is in the process of adopting low temperature meal technology, a process which yields significantly higher protein content than previous technologies and produces feed components particularly valuable to aquaculturists. Investment in these new processes represents an opportunity for the U.S. industry to broaden its market base and add value to its products. Public sector support, in the form of research on markets, technology development, and new products, will be a key factor in maintaining the domestic menhaden industry's global competitive status.

Stock size and fishing mortality were estimated utilizing a Murphy Virtual Population Analysis (VPA) for two data sets, one with just the reduction fishery landings, and one that combined the reduction and bait landings into a combined catch at age matrix. The reference points contained in Amendment 1 were then recalculated based on the combined data.

Combined Reduction and Bait Fishery Data:

* Based on a combined catch at age matrix, the VPA-generated estimate of fishing mortality for 2000 (F 2000 = 0.6) was below both the revised overfishing threshold (F = 1.1) and target (F = 0.9).

* The estimate of spawning stock biomass for 2000 (SSB = 90,100 t) was above both the revised threshold (27,500 t) and target (50,000 t) values.

Reference Point
Target or Threshold
Value
Current
Stock
Status
Evaluation
Fishing Mortality Target (F target) 0.9 0.6
Stock Healthy
Fishing Mortality Threshold (F threshold) 1.1 0.6
Stock Healthy
Spawning Stock Biomass Target (SSB target) 50,000 mt 90,100 MT
Stock Healthy
Spawning Stock Biomass Threshold (SSB threshold) 27,500 MT 90,100 MT
Stock Healthy


Based on the revised biological reference points, the Atlantic menhaden population is not overfished and overfishing is not occurring. However, the spawning stock biomass is declining due to a series of years with poor recruitment (to age-1). There is no evidence that recent low levels of recruitment have been caused by overfishing. The poor recruitment appears to be the result of poor survivorship of age-0 fish prior to their entry into the fishery at age-1.

Due to the decline in reduction fishery landings coupled with increased and improved reporting of the bait fishery landings, the relative importance of the bait fishery landings has increased. Because the bait fishery tends to harvest older and larger menhaden, the combined catch at age matrix implies that more older and larger fish were removed relative to the younger and smaller fish. By relying solely on the reduction fishery landings, the previous assessments appear to contain some level of bias. Since the older fish were under-represented, the assessments underestimated the abundance of older fish. Using the combined reduction and bait fishery data removes any bias inherent in relying on the reduction fishery data only, and provide a more accurate picture of the total menhaden population.


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As use of public waters, especially in the estuary and nearshore ocean areas, has grown, competition for space has increased, escalating spatial competition to conflict in some areas. Today's menhaden fleet is greatly reduced in the number of vessels from that of the past, though most of the vessels are quite large and operate during the peak tourist and sport fishing seasons (summer/fall) in areas where marine sportfishing is concentrated. Most conflicts have occurred in North Carolina, Virginia, Delaware, New Jersey, and New York.


"All Atlantic coastal states should open to menhaden purse seine fishing those state waters now closed to such fishing, which extend beyond one nautical mile from the shoreline, and those states should not close additional marine waters to menhaden purse seine fishing for at least five years."

Source: Atlantic Menhaden Management Review, 2000. Atlantic Menhaden Advisory Committee, June, 2000.


The natural behavior of menhaden generates spatial competition. Menhaden are not randomly distributed; they form dense schools in limited areas at any given time during the fishing season, principally in estuarine and nearshore ocean waters. For purse seine vessels to harvest them, the vessels must go to the fish, often bringing these large vessels into areas near tourist facilities or with concentrations of sport fishermen. The mere sight of menhaden vessels sometimes elicits telephone calls expressing concern to state agencies.

Menhaden serve as a forage fish for sport fish, such as striped bass, bluefish, weakfish, and king mackerel. Because menhaden serve this ecological role, some anglers insist that menhaden be abundantly available as prey for fishes higher in the food chain. Studies all show, however, that the noted game fish consume many other food items besides menhaden. In addition, especially in the south Atlantic area, sport fishermen harvest live menhaden for bait to use in the "slow trolling" method of fishing, which is quite selective for large king mackerel.

A perception frequently cited by anglers is that menhaden purse seines "entrap all fish within a large chunk of water. Anything bigger than a few inches is rounded up, and pulled alongside?" the menhaden vessels. Studies on the menhaden bycatch issue have been conducted since the late 1800s to more recent times. Bycatches have been extremely low, generally zero or much less than 1%, with thousands of sets examined over the years. Most of the bycatch in the historical studies has been of species of little importance to anglers, such as alewife, mullet, threadfin shad, and sea catfish. States which allow menhaden purse seine fishing generally have a limit on bycatch; for example, a 1% bycatch of foodfish is allowed in Virginia (by weight) and North Carolina (by number).

No studies have shown that the menhaden purse seine fishery has any significant biological effect on any other species or fishery. Yet, conflicts have developed from misconceptions concerning the competition and a lack of acceptance of scientific evidence demonstrated by many years of research. It can be concluded that existing competition between the menhaden fishery and other fisheries has been principally for space rather than for menhaden.

In an effort to reduce conflicts, the menhaden industry instituted an education program for other fishermen, management agencies, and the general public. These efforts included taking interested persons on their vessels to observe fishing activities. Individual menhaden companies follow internal codes of conduct for their fishing operations indicating the industry's concern with other fisheries and water-based activities. Areas addressed include cooperation with management agencies, adherence to water quality standards, and courtesy in vessel operations.

* aden fishery has been operating under several management plans since 1981 and 1992.

(SOURCE: Amendment 1 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. Pp. 1-2, 38; July, 2001.)

* The Atlantic menhaden fishery is being managed by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC), a multi-state compact established by federal law more than 50 years ago. This commission is comprised of state fishery directors, marine scientists, and legislative and public representatives.

(SOURCE: Amendment 1 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. P. 1; July, 2001.)

* This commission has the responsibility and authority to determine the health of the Atlantic menhaden fishery

*

Poor survivorship of 0-1 age (recruits) is a serious concern for the fishery.

2001 Status of Atlantic Menhaden Stock and Fishery. Atlantic Menhaden Technical Committee. P. 5; July 1, 2001)
*

Poor recruitment in Atlantic menhaden, like the reproduction capability, is cyclical, has occurred in the past, and recruitment has rebounded to normal levels.

2001 Status of Atlantic Menhaden Stock and Fishery. Atlantic Menhaden Technical Committee. P. 3; July 1, 2001)
*

"There is no evidence that recent low levels of recruitment have been caused by overfishing."

2001 Status of Atlantic Menhaden Stock and Fishery. Atlantic Menhaden Technical Committee. P. 5; July 1, 2001)
*

"The (spawning potential ration, SPR) estimate for 2000 ( 18.6%) is above the 75th percentile for the historical period. Additionally, Atlantic menhaden have demonstrated that they can produce good to excellent recruitment from much lower values of SPR, especially during the mid to late 1970s and early 19805 when the stock was rebuilding."

(SOURCE: Analyses on the Status of the Atlantic Menhaden Stock. NOAA Fisheries Center for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research. P. 4; June 7, 2001.)
*

About 50% of the available Atlantic menhaden fishery has been closed to the reduction industry for at least 10 years.

(SOURCE: Amendment 1 to the Interstate Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden. Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission. P. 38; July, 2001.)

If there is no scientific evidence that low levels of recruitment are caused by overfishing and low recruitment continues, despite half the fishery being closed, isn't it reasonable to deduce that something other than fishing is causing the low recruitment?

If you agree with the above statement, you are reasoning like a scientist. And if you are genuinely concerned about the health of the Atlantic menhaden, you will focus on the areas that scientists believe could be contributing factors to poor recruitment:

1. Loss of estuarine habitat
2. Water quality
3. Environmental contaminants
4. Habitat modification
5. Pfisteria and similar dinoflagellate blooms
6. Predation by other fish

A

Atlantic menhaden are members of the worldwide family Clupeidae, one of the most important families of fishes both economically and ecologically. Clupeids are characteristically very numerous and form large, dense schools. Many of the species are filter feeders, being either primary consumers, feeding on phytoplankton, or secondary consumers, feeding on zooplankton, or both. Many clupeids are in turn, prey for various piscivorous predators through virtually their entire life.

<graphics/photo_menhaden.jpg> Atlantic menhaden are euryhaline species that inhabit nearshore and inland tidal waters from Florida to Nova Scotia, Canada. Spawning occurs principally at sea with some activity in bays and sounds in the northern portion of its range. Eggs hatch at sea and the larvae are transported to estuaries by ocean currents where they metamorphose and develop as juveniles. Adults stratify by size during the summer, with older, larger individuals found farther north. During the fall, Atlantic menhaden migrate south and disperse from nearshore surface waters off North Carolina by late January or early February. Schools of adult menhaden reassemble in late March or early April and migrate northward. By June the population is redistributed from

Some Atlantic menhaden become sexually mature during their second year (late age-1), but most do not mature until their third year (late age-2). Spawning occurs primarily in late fall and winter. Thus, most Atlantic menhaden spawn for the first time at age-2 or 3, i.e., just before or after their third birthday (by convention, on March 1), and continue spawning every year until death. First-spawning age-3 fish have accounted for most of the stock's egg production since 1965. Atlantic menhaden mature at smaller sizes at the southern end of their range, 180 mm FL in the south Atlantic region versus 210 mm FL in the Chesapeake Bay area and 230 mm in the north and middle Atlantic regions, because of latitudinal differences in size-at- age and the fact that larger fish of a given age are distributed farther north than smaller fish of the same cohort.

The growing season begins in the spring and ends in the fall as water temperatures rise above and fall below 15°C. Atlantic menhaden reach lengths of about 500 mm TL and weights of over 1.5 kg. Fish as old as age-8 were fairly common in the spawning population during the 1950s and early 1960s, but fish older than age-6 have been rare in recent years. However, an exceptionally large (433 mm FL; 1,551 g) Atlantic menhaden from Chesapeake Bay taken in August 1996.

There is evidence for density-dependent growth in Atlantic menhaden, at least in young fish. Comparison of annual weights at age for age-1, -2, and -3 fish and age-1+ population size estimates for the 1955-84 period indicated an inverse relationship between the two parameters, suggesting that growth was accelerated during the late 1960s in response to low population size and reduced during the mid-1970s and early 1980s when population size was high. The reduction in mean weight at age 3 was particularly dramatic, declining 60% between 1976 and 1978 and remaining low through 1984. However, other studies demonstrated that the growth rates of fish after recruitment in their first year of life was not correlated with abundance, but did depend on size at recruitment, indicating that fish probably recruited at smaller sizes in years of high juvenile population size and vice-versa. Thus, density-dependent effects probably occur during the estuarine nursery period. Negative correlations between the mean lengths of age 0.5 and 0.75 fish and the number of recruits at age 0.5 support this hypothesis. The observed decline in sizes at age in the fishery is also due in part to a shift in fishing to the south where smaller fish at a given age are found

Most Atlantic menhaden reach sexual maturity during their third year of life (late age 2) at lengths of 180 - 230 mm fork length (FL). Spawning occurs year-round throughout much of the species' range, with maximum spawning off the North Carolina coast during late fall and winter. Adults then move inshore and northward in spring and stratify by age and size along the Atlantic coast. During this northern migration, spawning occurs progressively closer inshore and by late spring, some spawning occurs within coastal embayments. There are definite spring and fall spawning peaks in the Middle and North Atlantic Regions, with some spawning occurring during the winter in the shelf waters of the Mid-Atlantic Region.

Atlantic menhaden are relatively prolific spawners. Predicted fecundities range from 38,000 eggs for a small female (180 mm FL) to 362,000 for a large female (330 mm FL).

Analysis of eggs and larvae collected at various locations along the Atlantic coast during 1953-75 generally confirmed earlier knowledge of spawning times and locations based on observations of adults with maturing or spent ovaries. During December-March, most spawning-age fish congregate in offshore waters south of Cape Hatteras. Maximum spawning probably occurs at this time. Maximum spawning may occur off North Carolina during periods of strong northeast winds in up-welled water near the western edge of the Gulf Stream. Spawning continues at a decreasing rate closer inshore as fish migrate north in late March. By May, most spawning is restricted to coastal waters north of Cape Hatteras . Spawning reaches a minimum in June, but continues at a low level until September north of Long Island. As mature fish migrate south in October, spawning increases from Long Island to Virginia.

The capture of a 138 mm juvenile Atlantic menhaden in an estuary on the Maine coast in October 1990 suggests that a limited amount of spawning may occur as far north as the Gulf of Maine. Some ripening female menhaden were offloaded on to the Soviet processing ship near Portland, Maine in August and September 1991. Egg and larval surveys have been restricted to waters south of Cape Cod and, thus, would not have produced any evidence for spawning in the Gulf of Maine.
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Atlantic menhaden produce pelagic eggs about 1.5 mm in diameter which hatch within 2.5-2.9 days at an average temperature of 15.5°C. Embryonic development is completed in <36 hr at 20-25°C, but takes about 200 hr at 10°C. Egg mortalities observed in the laboratory were >90% at 10°C, and 48-92% at 15, 20 and 25°C.

Larvae which hatch offshore are transported shoreward and enter estuaries in the south Atlantic region after 1-3 months at sea at a size of 14-34 mm FL. Larval immigration into estuaries occurs during May-October in the north Atlantic region, October-June in the mid- Atlantic, and December-May in the south Atlantic.

Metamorphosis to the juvenile stage occurs at about 38 mm total length (TL) during late April-May in North Carolina estuaries and later in the year farther north. Most larvae entered the White Oak estuary (North Carolina) in March and moved upstream to a fresh water-low salinity zone where they transformed into "pre-juveniles" in late March-April and then into juveniles in late April-May. Other studies also show young menhaden are more abundant in shallow, low salinity (< 5%) estuarine zones. Metamorphosis to the "pre- juvenile" stage occurs at lengths >30 mm TL and to the juvenile stage beyond 38 mm TL. Metamorphosis is rarely successful outside of the low-salinity estuarine zone, although Atlantic menhaden have been successfully reared from eggs to juveniles in high salinity water.

The morphological changes that occur at metamorphosis are associated with a change in feeding behavior. Larvae feed on individual zooplankters, whereas juveniles rely more heavily on filter feeding. This shift in feeding behavior is associated with a loss of teeth and an increase in the number and complexity of the gill rakers through which sea water is filtered as it passes through the gills Older larvae (25-32 mm) feed on large copepods, but only rarely on small zooplanktonic organisms. Fish larger than 40 mm FL feed primarily on phytoplankton, but zooplankton has also been reported as an equally important food source in juvenile Atlantic menhaden. Juveniles are capable of filtering particles as small as 7-9 microns and, thus, directly utilize the abundant small photosynthetic organisms that are not consumed by most other species of fish. Detritus derived from saltmarsh cordgrass (Spartino altemiflora) has also been reported as a primary food source for juveniles in North Carolina saltmarshes. Based on calculations incorporating feeding rates and population estimates from eight east coast estuaries, other scientific studies concluded that juveniles must consume more food during estuarine residency than is available from a strictly phytoplankton-based food chain.

Young-of-the-year menhaden congregate in dense schools as they leave shallow, estuarine waters for the ocean, principally during August to November (earliest in the north Atlantic region) at lengths of 75-110 mm TL. Many of these juveniles migrate south along the North Carolina coast as far as Florida in late fall and early winter and then redistribute northward by size as age-1 fish during the following spring and summer. Larvae which enter the estuaries late in the season may remain there for an additional year and emigrate to the ocean at age 1.

Age-1 menhaden migrate north and south along the coast over a greater distance than young-of-the-year juveniles. Abundance and distribution of juvenile Atlantic menhaden is monitored by the marine resource agencies of most Atlantic coast states under a variety of estuarine surveys using trawls and seines. According to a survey conducted by the Atlantic Menhaden Advisory Committee in February 1990, juvenile menhaden have been taken from Massachusetts to Georgia (there is no survey on the Atlantic coast of Florida). Juvenile menhaden were observed in Gulf of Maine estuaries during 1998 and 1999.

Juveniles collected at 2-3 day intervals have shown growth rates of nearly 1 mm/day. Water temperatures >33°C caused death in young-of-the-year and age-1 Atlantic menhaden, although the time until death depended, in part, on acclimation factors. Sudden exposure to lethal temperatures, for example, caused greater mortality. Juvenile Atlantic menhaden can adjust rapidly to abrupt changes (increase or decrease) in salinity from 3.5 to 35% and vice-versa. Juveniles raised in low salinity water (5-10%) were more active, ate more, had higher metabolic rates, and grew faster than juveniles raised in high salinity water (28-34%).
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Adult Atlantic menhaden are strictly filter feeders, grazing on planktonic organisms. They can be observed swimming slowly in circles, in tightly packed schools, with their mouths wide open and their opercula (gill flaps) flaring. In lab experiments, they fed on small adult copepods as well as phytoplankton. Organisms smaller than 13-16 microns were not retained in the gills. Menhaden did not feed on large zooplankton (10 mm brine shrimp) in these experiments. The filtering process is purely mechanical; particles are not selected by size. These experiments showed that the filtering rate depended on mouth size, swimming speed, food particle concentration, and the mechanical efficiency of the gill rakers.

Growth occurs primarily during the warmer months. Fish as old as age 8 were fairly common during the 1950s and early 1960s, but in more recent years, fish older than age 6 have been rare. Older (age-6) fish reach an average length of 330 mm FL and a weight of 630 g, although growth varies from year to year and is inversely density-dependent. Growth rates appear to be accelerated during the first year when juvenile population size is low and are reduced when juvenile population size is high.

Adults migrate extensively along the entire United States East Coast. Following winter dispersal along the south Atlantic coast, adults begin migrating north in early spring, reaching as far north as the Gulf of Maine in June. Older and larger fish migrate farther than younger, smaller fish. The return southern migration occurs in late fall and early winter .
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Atlantic menhaden are abundant in the estuarine and nearshore ocean waters of North America from Nova Scotia to central Florida. They have been taken in commercial quantities from northern Florida to southern Maine. A few individuals have been taken as far north as St. John, New Brunswick, and St. Mary Bay, Nova Scotia. The southern limit seems to be Indian River City, Florida. Spawning occurs in the ocean, while larvae and juveniles utilize coastal estuaries. The adult population stratifies by age and size, with the older and larger individuals farther northward, and the younger and smaller fish in the southern half of the species' range.
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The Atlantic menhaden resource is believed to consist of a single unit stock or population, based on tagging studies. Adult Atlantic menhaden undergo extensive seasonal migrations north and south along the United States East Coast. Early reports of this migratory behavior were made based on the decrease in the number of purse seine sets north of Cape Cod in September. Also, other studies observed the disappearance of fish in October north of Chesapeake Bay and their appearance off the coast of North Carolina in November. Others examined latitudinal differences in length-frequency distributions of individual age groups at different times of year and described a cyclic north-south movement with the largest and oldest fish proceeding farthest north such that the population stratifies itself by age and size along the coast during summer. A study of length frequencies at the time of first annulus formation on scales supported the concept of a north-south migratory movement and also indicated that a great deal of mixing of fish from all areas occurs off the North Carolina coast before fish move northward in spring.

Returns of tagged Atlantic menhaden have generally confirmed what was already concluded from earlier work and added some important details. Adults begin migrating inshore and north in early spring following the end of the major spawning season off the North Carolina coast during December-February. The oldest and largest fish migrate farthest, reaching the Gulf of Maine in May and June. Adults that remain in the south Atlantic region for the spring and summer migrate south later in the year, reaching northern Florida by fall. Fish begin migrating south from northern areas to the Carolinas in late fall. During November, most of the adult population that summered north of Chesapeake Bay moves south around Cape Hatteras

The Atlantic menhaden population is subject to a high natural mortality rate. There is a somewhat reduced probability of death from natural causes when the population is being harvested. Natural mortality is also higher during the first two years of life than during subsequent years. Scientific studies indicate an annual instantaneous natural mortality rate (M) of 0.45 in the absence of fishing; this rate is equivalent to an annual reduction in population numbers of 36%. This rate is quite high compared to other pelagic marine species. Atlantic herring, for example, is characterized by an 18% annual natural mortality rate. During the 1955-1987 period, under exploitation, the annual natural mortality rate for age-1 Atlantic menhaden was 30% and, for ages 2 and older, it was 20%. Natural mortality removes an estimated 30% of the exploited population at age 1 and 20% each year thereafter.

Menhaden natural mortality is probably due primarily to predation, since the fish are so abundant in coastal waters during the warmer months of the year. All large piscivorous sea mammals, birds, and fish are potential predators on Atlantic menhaden. Menhaden are preyed upon by species such as bluefish, striped bass, king mackerel, spanish mackerel, pollock, cod, weakfish, silver hake, tunas, swordfish, bonito, tarpon, and a variety of sharks .

Coastal pollution and habitat degradation threaten marine fish species, such as Atlantic menhaden, which spend their first year of life in estuarine waters and the rest of their life in both ocean and estuarine waters.

Other poorly understood sources of natural mortality for Atlantic menhaden are diseases and parasites. There is no information available concerning the extent of parasitism or its possible effect on survival. Studies described the incidence of ulcerative mycosis (UM), a fungal infestation which was observed in menhaden over much of their range in 1984 and 1985 and in a more restricted area in 1986. A large fish kill in Pamlico Sound, North Carolina in November, 1984 was associated with UM, but its primary effect may be to weaken fish, making them more susceptible to other causes of mortality, such as predation, parasites, other diseases, and low dissolved oxygen concentrations. The overall impact of UM on the 1984 and 1985 year classes could not be assessed, but it was not believed to be significant. However, other scientists believed that the mortality effects of a disease or other event must be "truly catastrophic" to be detectable.

Another source of natural mortality for Atlantic menhaden (and many other species) may be "red tide." The term refers to the color of water caused by the rapid multiplication ("bloom") of single-celled planktonic organisms called dinoflagellates, which produce a toxic compound. The toxin accumulates in the tissues of filter-feeding animals which ingest the dinoflagellate. An outbreak of red tide occurred along the coast of the Carolinas during November, 1987 - April, 1988 when Gulf Stream water containing the dinoflagellates was transported into coastal waters. Menhaden recruitment in Beaufort Inlet during this period was severely reduced.

A new species of toxic dinoflagellate was identified as the causative agent in a major menhaden kill in the Pamlico River, North Carolina, in May, 1991. Problems with toxic phytoplankton organisms may increase in the future since their appearance has been correlated with increasing nutrient enrichment in estuarine and coastal waters which are subject to increasing organic pollution.

An additional source of mortality are fish "kills" which occur when schools of menhaden enter enclosed inshore bodies of water in such large numbers that they consume all available oxygen and suffocate. The mean lethal dissolved oxygen concentration for menhaden has been reported to be 0.4 mg/l. Bluefish are known to follow (or even chase) schools of menhaden inshore, feeding on them, and may contribute to their mortality by preventing them from leaving an area before the oxygen supply is depleted. Oxygen depletion is accelerated by high water temperatures which increase the metabolic rate of the fish; at the same time, oxygen is less soluble in warm water. Menhaden which die from low oxygen stress can immediately be recognized by the red coloration on their heads caused by bursting blood capillaries. Just before death, the fish can be seen swimming very slowly in a disoriented manner just below the surface of the water. This is a common phenomenon which has been observed throughout the range of the species. Menhaden spotter pilots have reported menhaden "boiling up" from the middle of dense schools, and washing up on the beach, apparently from oxygen depletion within the school. This phenomenon was observed during December, 1979 in the ocean off Atlantic Beach, North Carolina. Other scientists reported a similar event off Core Banks, North Carolina, in December 1997. Other species are not nearly as susceptible simply because they do not enter enclosed inshore waters in such large numbers.
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Menhaden are extremely abundant in nearshore coastal waters because of their ability to directly utilize phytoplankton, which is the basic food resource in aquatic systems. Other species of marine fish are not equipped to filter such small organisms from the water. Consequently, such large populations of other species cannot be supported. Because menhaden are so abundant in nearshore coastal and estuarine waters, they are an important forage fish for a variety of larger piscivorous fishes, birds, and marine mammals. In ecological terms, menhaden occupy a very important link in the coastal marine food chain, transferring planktonic material into animal biomass. As a result of this, menhaden influence the conversion and exchange of energy and organic matter within the coastal ecosystem throughout their range.

Because menhaden only remove planktonic organisms larger than 13-16 microns (7 microns for juveniles) from the water, the presence of large numbers of fish in a localized area could alter the composition of plankton assemblages. Studies have estimated that juvenile menhaden consumed 6-9% of the annual phytoplankton production in eight estuaries on the east coast, and up to 100% of the daily production in some instances.

A large school of menhaden can also deplete oxygen supplies and increase nutrient levels in the vicinity of the school. Enrichment of coastal waters by large numbers of menhaden can be expected to stimulate phytoplankton production. One researcher measured ammonia concentrations (from excretion) inside menhaden schools that were five times higher than ambient levels 4.5 km away. At the same time, chlorophyll values increased by a factor of five over the same distance, indicating the grazing effect of the fish on the phytoplankton standing crop. Oxygen values were not significantly reduced by the fish, but were much more variable inside the schools than outside them.

Also, in a study of energy and nitrogen budgets, food consumption rates, energy expenditures, and growth efficiency were examined. Results indicated that swimming speed, the duration of the daily feeding period, and the concentration of plankton in the water controlled the energy and nitrogen budgets for this species.

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Atlantic menhaden have supported one of the United State's largest fisheries since colonial times.

Menhaden have repeatedly been listed as one the nation's most important commercial fisheries species in terms of quantity. Total menhaden landings (Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic) in 1998 were 1.7 billion pounds (816,467 mt) valued at $103.8 million. Preliminary Atlantic menhaden landings in 1999 totaled 416 million pounds (188,662 mt) with an estimated ex-vessel value of $33.2 million.

<graphics/menhaden.jpg> Native Americans may have used menhaden for fertilizer before the European settlement of North America. Colonists soon recognized the value of whole menhaden for fertilizer, and local seine fisheries gradually developed from New York to Maine. Farmers applied 6,000 to 8,000 fish per acre. The use of whole fish as fertilizer continued into the nineteenth century. Union soldiers returning home from North Carolina and Virginia after the Civil War provided anecdotal reports on the abundance of menhaden in Chesapeake Bay and coastal North Carolina, sparking interest in a southern fishery, which soon developed.

The menhaden oil industry began in Rhode Island in 1811. It has grown steadily, with significant mechanization, including boilers for rendering raw fish and presses for removing oil. Oil was initially used for fuel and industrial processes, while the remaining solids (scrap) were used for fertilizer. Numerous small factories were located along the coasts of the northeastern states. However, their supply was limited to fish that could be captured by the traditional shore-based seines. In 1845, the purse seine was introduced, and an adequate supply of raw material was no longer a problem. By 1870, the industry had expanded southward, with several plants in the Chesapeake Bay and North Carolina areas.

The industry gradually developed during the late 1800s and early 1900s. During this period the number of factories and vessels varied with the supply of menhaden. The principal use for the scrap was fertilizer, with different companies each producing their own formulation. A small amount of scrap was used to feed cattle and chickens.

The primary use of menhaden changed from fertilizer to animal feed during the period following World War I. Scientists described the uses of menhaden during the late 1920s as follows: "... much is being used in mixed feeds for poultry, swine, and cattle and the amount going to fertilizer is steadily decreasing. Menhaden oil is used primarily in the manufacture of soap, linoleum, water proof fabrics, and certain types of paints.

Following World War II the industry grew rapidly, reaching peak production during 1953-62. Sharp declines in landings thereafter resulted in factory closings and fleet reductions through the 1960s and into the early 1970s. Since that time, the menhaden industry has experienced major changes in processing capacity, resource accessibility, and access to new product markets.

Nine menhaden reduction plants on the Atlantic coast closed permanently during the 1980s while two new operations began. In 1990, five reduction plants with 37 vessels processed Atlantic menhaden for fish meal and oil. In the United States, land-based plants are currently located at Beaufort, North Carolina and Reedville, Virginia. An IWP (Internal Waters Processing) venture operated in Maine state waters during 1988-92. Menhaden have also been caught off the coast of Maine and transported to a reduction plant in Blacks Harbour, New Brunswick, Canada. Most Atlantic states, however, remain open to menhaden fishing.

Since the preparation of the 1981 Atlantic Menhaden FMP (Fishery Management Plan), there have been numerous regulatory changes affecting the menhaden fishery, such as season limits, area closures, and changes in license fees. Economic pressures rather than resource considerations have led to the consolidation of the menhaden industry in recent years.

Life History

The Atlantic menhaden is a member of the herring family, Clupiedae, but unlike shad and river herring, they spawn in the ocean and their young develop and grow in the less saline waters of estuaries during their first year. Menhaden are silvery in color with a distinct black shoulder spot behind their gill opening and a variable number of smaller spots on their sides. Like shad and herring, they possess a series of scutes along their belly. Their bodies are moderately compressed, their caudal fin is deeply forked, and their fins lack spines. Menhaden range from Nova Scotia, Canada to central Florida.

Atlantic menhaden mature at about age 2 and will spawn in inshore waters over most of the continental shelf. They spawn throughout the entire year at one location or another along the Atlantic coast. In the mid-Atlantic, these fish spawn from March through May. Their eggs are buoyant and hatch in about 75 days. Larvae are pelagic and probably spend about one month in waters over the continental shelf before entering Chesapeake Bay. The Bay is an important nursery for juvenile menhaden; they occupy almost the entire Bay and its tributaries from above Baltimore to the mouth of the Bay in Virginia. Larval fish enter the Bay in early summer and move into lower salinity waters in estuarine tributaries where they are found in great numbers. These juveniles, along with other immature fish (ages 1 and 2), remain in the Bay until the fall when most migrate to the ocean. These migrants then move southward and winter offshore south of Cape Hatteras. The following spring they migrate northward as adults to the Chesapeake Bay area and into New England waters.

Atlantic menhaden are one of the most abundant fish species in estuarine and coastal Atlantic waters. During summer months in Chesapeake Bay, these fish swim in large schools and their silvery bodies can often be seen splashing the water's surface. Juveniles primarily feed on zooplankton, but adults are mainly herbivores, but retain the ability to feed on zooplankton. The adults are very adaptable and will feed on several species of phytoplankton, as well as suspended organic plant detritus.

Atlantic menhaden are an ecologically critical fish species. They consume and redistribute a significant amount of energy within and between Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, and the coastal ocean. This is due, in part, to their tremendous numbers, their individual growth rates, filter feeding capacity, and seasonal movements. Menhaden are also an extremely important prey species for many predatory fish such as striped bass, bluefish, Spanish mackerel, tuna, and sharks. Because of their schooling behavior, they are also a favorite target for herons, egrets, ospreys, and eagles.

Chesapeake Bay Management

The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (Commission) developed the Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden (Plan) in 1981, which was later revised in 1992. Management authority was established in the states because the vast majority of menhaden landings come from state waters. There is a single stock that migrates along the entire Atlantic coast, and every state, except Pennsylvania, has declared interest in the menhaden management program. The management process contained in this Plan relies on six "trigger variables" to determine the "health" of the stock. These include: 1) landings in weight; (2) proportion of age 0 fish in landings; (3) proportion of adults (age 3+) in landings; (4) recruits to age 1; (5) spawning stock biomass and; (6) percent maximum spawning potential.

In January 1999, the Commission's Atlantic Menhaden Management Board recommended that the Commission begin developing an amendment to the existing 1992 Plan. This action was based upon the results of an external peer review of the Atlantic menhaden stock assessment which recommended major revisions to the Plan. The current Plan, relying on the six "trigger variables" to monitor changes in stock size and recruitment in the population, are based on landings data that do not reflect true trends in the population. In addition, these trigger values do not result in any direct management and/or regulatory action. The Peer Review Panel recommended replacement of several of these triggers with true biological reference points which would respond to the management goals and result in regulatory changes in the menhaden management process. Furthermore, this Panel recommended that these reference points should address the ecological role of menhaden as a forage base for other species and as a consumer of phytoplankton. The Panel suggested the development of a quota based management system with annual total allowable catch allocated by season and fishing areas. For more information on coastal Atlantic menhaden management, please visit the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) web site.

Currently, the biological background section for a Chesapeake Bay Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden has been drafted and various management options have been considered; however, no decisions have been made and no documents have been finalized.

Commercial and Recreational Fisheries

Atlantic menhaden used to be heavily fished along the entire Atlantic coast. It was the second most important species harvested in the United States in terms of quantity, and was processed for its oil, protein meal, and solubles. Now, there is only one reduction plant left which harvests menhaden from the lower Chesapeake Bay and the North Carolina coast. A small bait fishery for commercial and recreational use still exists along the coast. Purse seine fishing for menhaden takes place along the Atlantic coast and in the Virginia half of the Chesapeake Bay. Menhaden are captured in pound nets in Maryland's portion of the Bay.

The primary gear for harvesting menhaden for the oil and protein meal products is the purse seine. Maryland has prohibited purse seining in state waters (0-3 miles from the coast), and in Chesapeake Bay since before the 1950s. The use of spotter planes to locate menhaden schools has also been prohibited.

A recreational fishery does not exist for Atlantic menhaden in Maryland. Current management restrictions on Atlantic menhaden can be found on our updated commercial and recreational regulations page.

Atlantic Menhaden Fun Facts:

* A large crustacean parasite is commonly found in the mouth of Atlantic menhaden; hence, the common name, "Bugmouth".
* The maximum size of Atlantic menhaden is approximately 15 inches.
* Summer "kills" of large numbers of menhaden are common in Chesapeake Bay and are associated with low dissolved oxygen events.

The Atlantic menhaden is one of the most abundant species of finfish in estuarine and coastal Atlantic waters. The second most important species harvested in the United States in terms of quantity, it is processed for its oil, protein meal and solubles, and is used as bait for commercial and recreational fishing. Menhaden are consumers of phytoplankton and plant detritus, and, in turn, are fed upon by many predatory fish, mammals and birds.

The Atlantic menhaden is a member of the herring family, Clupiedae, but unlike shad and river herring, they spawn in the ocean and their young develop and grow in the less saline waters of estuaries during their first year. Menhaden are silvery in color with a distinct black shoulder spot behind their gill opening and a variable number of smaller spots on their sides. Like shad and herring, they possess a series of scutes along their belly. Their bodies are moderately compressed, their caudal fin is deeply forked, and their fins lack spines. Menhaden range from Nova Scotia, Canada to central Florida.

By convention, March 1st is considered the average birth date for the species. 1-year old menhaden are about 6 inches long and weigh 2-3 ounces, 3-year old menhaden are 9-10 inches long and weigh over 0.5 lbs, and 6-year old menhaden are about 1 foot long and weigh approximately 1 pound. Fish as old as age 8 were fairly common in the spawning population during the 1950s and early 1960s, but fish older than age 6 have been rare in recent years. An exceptionally large fish weighing 3lbs 6oz. was reportedly taken in August 1996 from the Chesapeake Bay. Sexual maturity begins as age-2 fish enter their third fall, prior to their third birth date.

Major spawning areas are from New Jersey to the Carolinas; spawning occurs primarily offshore (20-30 miles) during winter. Buoyant eggs hatch at sea, and larvae are carried into estuaries where they spend most of their first year of life; then they migrate to the ocean in late fall. Adult and juvenile menhaden form large, near surface schools, primarily in estuaries and ocean waters near shore, from early spring through early winter. By summer, menhaden schools stratify by size and age along the coast, with older and larger menhaden found farther north. During fall to early winter, menhaden of all sizes and ages migrate south around the North Carolina capes.

Fisheries

The menhaden fishery for reduction had its origins in New England during the early 1800s and spread south after the Civil War. The purse seine was introduced after the Civil War, allowing the fishery to expand. Coal-fired steamers gradually replaced sailing ships as carrier vessels in the late 1800s; diesel and gasoline engines gradually replaced steam engines following World War I.

Major innovation after World War II included use of spotter aircraft, radio communications, nylon nets, hydraulic power blocks, aluminum purse boats, fish pumps, and large carrier vessels (greater than 150 ft. long).

The number of vessels in fishery reduction declined from 150 in 1955 to 31 in 1993, while the number of plants declined from 23 in 1955 to 7 in 1993 (including two factory ships). During 1994-97, three plants operated with about 20 vessels. This decline in vessels and plants is offset by increased harvesting and processing efficiency.

Landings and fishing effort increased from 1940 through late 1950s, declined precipitously during the 1960s, and then improved significantly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Annual landings during 1990-1997 averaged 319,000 metric tons. Landings for 2000 only totaled 167,000 metric tons, the second lowest since the National Marine Fisheries Service began keeping records in 1940.

In 1996, about 36% of U.S. Atlantic coast commercial fisheries landings by weight were Atlantic menhaden. Landings of menhaden for bait by other fisheries (such as pound net and purse seine) are about 10% of the Atlantic menhaden catch.

In 2002, only two shore-side reduction plants will operate on the U.S. Atlantic coast: one plant in Beaufort, North Carolina, with two vessels, and one in Reedville, Virginia, with about 10 vessels.

The overwhelming majority of menhaden catches come from the Chesapeake Bay and the remainder are caught in coastal waters, from Virginia to North Carolina, mostly within a mile of the ocean shore.

Products and Uses

The purse seine fishery for reduction processes menhaden into fishmeal, fish oil, and fish solubles. Fishmeal is a valuable ingredient in poultry and livestock feeds because of its high protein content (at least 60%). The broiler (chicken) industry is currently the largest user of menhaden meal followed by the turkey, swine, pet food, and ruminant industries. The aquaculture industry has recently demonstrated an increased demand for fishmeal as well.

Menhaden oil has been used for many years as an edible oil in Europe. The oil is refined and used extensively in cooking oils and margarine. In 1989, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that fully and partially hydrogenated menhaden oil is a safe ingredient for human consumption. In 1990, the FDA proposed an amendment based on an industry petition, to the standard of identity for margarine to permit the use of marine oils. It was approved in 1997 and could provide a significant new market for omega-3 rich menhaden oil.

Catches from the menhaden purse seine bait fishery are used by sport fisherman as chum and as cut or live bait for sportfishes such as bluefish, striped bass, weakfish, king mackerel, red drum, shark, and tuna.

Fisheries Management

The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (commission) developed a Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden (Plan) in 1981, which was later revised in 1992. Management authority was established in the states because the vast majority of menhaden landings come from state waters. There is a single stock that migrates along the entire Atlantic coast, and every state, except Pennsylvania, has declared interest in the menhaden management program. The management process contained in this Plan relies on six "trigger variables" to determine the "health" of the stock. These include 1) landings in weight; 2) proportion of age 0 fish in landings; 3) proportion of adults (age 3+) in landings: 4) recruits to age 1; 5) spawning stock biomass and; 6) percent maximum spawning potential.

In January 1999, the Commission's Atlantic Menhaden Management Board recommended that the commission begin developing an amendment to the existing 1992 Plan. This action was based upon the results of an external peer review of the Atlantic menhaden stock assessment which recommended major revisions to the Plan. The current Plan, relying on the six "trigger variables" to monitor changes in stock size and recruitment in the population, are based on landings data that do not reflect true trends in the population. In addition, these trigger values do not result in any direct management and/or regulatory action. The Peer Review Panel recommended replacement of several of these triggers with true biological reference points which would respond to the management goals and result in regulatory changes in the menhaden management process. Furthermore, this panel recommended that these reference points should address the ecological role of menhaden as a forage base for other species and as a consumer of phytoplankton. The panel suggested the development of a quota based management system with annual total allowable catch allocated by season and fishing areas. For more information on coastal Atlantic menhaden management, please visit the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) web site.

Recently the ASMFC amended their Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan; however, they did not address the plan's ecological objectives, one of their primary concerns regarding allocation of the stock.

Chesapeake Bay

The Chesapeake Bay is the most important nursery area for juvenile menhaden along the Atlantic coast; they utilize almost the entire Bay and its tributaries. Larvae are pelagic and spend approximately one month in waters over the continental shelf before entering the Bay and moving into lower salinity waters in estuarine tributaries where they metamorphose into juveniles. These juveniles, along with older year classes of Atlantic menhaden remain in the Bay until the fall when most migrate to the ocean. These migrants then move southward and winter offshore south of Cape Hatteras. The following spring they migrate northward to the Chesapeake Bay area and into New England waters.

Atlantic menhaden are the most important and one of the most abundant fish species in the Chesapeake Bay. During summer months, these fish swim in large schools and their silvery bodies can often be seen near the water's surface. Juveniles primarily feed on zooplankton, but adults are mainly herbivores, but retain the ability to feed on zooplankton. The adults are very adaptable and will feed on several species of phytoplankton, as well as suspended organic plant detritus. Atlantic menhaden are an ecologically critical fish species. They consume and redistribute a significant amount of energy within and between the Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, and the coastal ocean. This is due, in part, to their tremendous numbers, individual growth rate, filter feeding capacity, and seasonal movements. An adult fish can filter up to a million gallons of water every 180 days. A healthy Atlantic menhaden population has the potential to consume up to 25% of the Bay's nitrogen in 1-year. Menhaden are also an extremely important prey species for many predatory fish such as striped bass, bluefish, weakfish, and spanish mackerel. Because or their schooling behavior, they are also a favorite target for the common loon, herons, egrets, ospreys, and eagles.

The Atlantic menhaden population has suffered from poor recruitment in the Chesapeake Bay for the past 10 years. Poor reproductive success is at least partially responsible for the decline in menhaden, but the species also suffers from disease and mass mortalities in the bay and other mid-Atlantic estuaries. The commonly observed deep ulcers in menhaden have been attributed to toxic activity of Pfiesteria piscicida, but fungi, protozoan parasites and bacteria also are involved. Large schools of menhaden occasionally are killed in the Bay by low dissolved oxygen episodes related to algae blooms.

Historically Atlantic menhaden were heavily fished along most of the Atlantic coast. A bait fishery for commercial and recreational use still exists along the coast. Purse seine fishing for menhaden takes place along the Atlantic coast and in the Virginia portion of the Chesapeake Bay. In recent years over 50% of the menhaden caught by the reduction industry have been taken from the Chesapeake Bay. Menhaden are captured in pound nets in Maryland's portion of the Bay. The primary gear for harvesting menhaden for the oil and protein meal products is the purse seine. Maryland has prohibited purse seining in state waters (0-3 miles from the coast) and in the Chesapeake Bay since before the 1950s. The use of spotter planes to locate menhaden schools has also been prohibited.

Chesapeake Bay Fisheries Management

The Maryland Department of Natural Resources drafted a biological background section for an Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan in 1996 and various management options were considered; however, no decisions have been made and no documents have been finalized.

The Chesapeake Bay Ecological Foundation requested that the Chesapeake Bay Program consider addressing the issue of developing an Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan for the Chesapeake Bay on August 21, 1999.

Thanks, Chef :btu:- I'm gonna sit down to read it after dinner.

Dude,
I thought I had a lot of spare time on my hands when I was unemployed?
Least fishing time is cloer for you.
It was a very long winter.
Later,
Rick

CHEFERSON, thanks for the good info, lotta education to digest !Hope your fingers aren't still numb when the big ones arrive!:)

Dude. You know a litle something about a litle something.

Whatever its free info, i pasted it off other sites, never said it was my own.

Yes its good information. Thank you.:cool:

bump