[cheferson]

The Atlantic menhaden is one of the most abundant species of finfish in estuarine and coastal Atlantic waters. The second most important species harvested in the United States in terms of quantity, it is processed for its oil, protein meal and solubles, and is used as bait for commercial and recreational fishing. Menhaden are consumers of phytoplankton and plant detritus, and, in turn, are fed upon by many predatory fish, mammals and birds.

The Atlantic menhaden is a member of the herring family, Clupiedae, but unlike shad and river herring, they spawn in the ocean and their young develop and grow in the less saline waters of estuaries during their first year. Menhaden are silvery in color with a distinct black shoulder spot behind their gill opening and a variable number of smaller spots on their sides. Like shad and herring, they possess a series of scutes along their belly. Their bodies are moderately compressed, their caudal fin is deeply forked, and their fins lack spines. Menhaden range from Nova Scotia, Canada to central Florida.

By convention, March 1st is considered the average birth date for the species. 1-year old menhaden are about 6 inches long and weigh 2-3 ounces, 3-year old menhaden are 9-10 inches long and weigh over 0.5 lbs, and 6-year old menhaden are about 1 foot long and weigh approximately 1 pound. Fish as old as age 8 were fairly common in the spawning population during the 1950s and early 1960s, but fish older than age 6 have been rare in recent years. An exceptionally large fish weighing 3lbs 6oz. was reportedly taken in August 1996 from the Chesapeake Bay. Sexual maturity begins as age-2 fish enter their third fall, prior to their third birth date.

Major spawning areas are from New Jersey to the Carolinas; spawning occurs primarily offshore (20-30 miles) during winter. Buoyant eggs hatch at sea, and larvae are carried into estuaries where they spend most of their first year of life; then they migrate to the ocean in late fall. Adult and juvenile menhaden form large, near surface schools, primarily in estuaries and ocean waters near shore, from early spring through early winter. By summer, menhaden schools stratify by size and age along the coast, with older and larger menhaden found farther north. During fall to early winter, menhaden of all sizes and ages migrate south around the North Carolina capes.

Fisheries

The menhaden fishery for reduction had its origins in New England during the early 1800s and spread south after the Civil War. The purse seine was introduced after the Civil War, allowing the fishery to expand. Coal-fired steamers gradually replaced sailing ships as carrier vessels in the late 1800s; diesel and gasoline engines gradually replaced steam engines following World War I.

Major innovation after World War II included use of spotter aircraft, radio communications, nylon nets, hydraulic power blocks, aluminum purse boats, fish pumps, and large carrier vessels (greater than 150 ft. long).

The number of vessels in fishery reduction declined from 150 in 1955 to 31 in 1993, while the number of plants declined from 23 in 1955 to 7 in 1993 (including two factory ships). During 1994-97, three plants operated with about 20 vessels. This decline in vessels and plants is offset by increased harvesting and processing efficiency.

Landings and fishing effort increased from 1940 through late 1950s, declined precipitously during the 1960s, and then improved significantly during the 1970s and early 1980s. Annual landings during 1990-1997 averaged 319,000 metric tons. Landings for 2000 only totaled 167,000 metric tons, the second lowest since the National Marine Fisheries Service began keeping records in 1940.

In 1996, about 36% of U.S. Atlantic coast commercial fisheries landings by weight were Atlantic menhaden. Landings of menhaden for bait by other fisheries (such as pound net and purse seine) are about 10% of the Atlantic menhaden catch.

In 2002, only two shore-side reduction plants will operate on the U.S. Atlantic coast: one plant in Beaufort, North Carolina, with two vessels, and one in Reedville, Virginia, with about 10 vessels.

The overwhelming majority of menhaden catches come from the Chesapeake Bay and the remainder are caught in coastal waters, from Virginia to North Carolina, mostly within a mile of the ocean shore.

Products and Uses

The purse seine fishery for reduction processes menhaden into fishmeal, fish oil, and fish solubles. Fishmeal is a valuable ingredient in poultry and livestock feeds because of its high protein content (at least 60%). The broiler (chicken) industry is currently the largest user of menhaden meal followed by the turkey, swine, pet food, and ruminant industries. The aquaculture industry has recently demonstrated an increased demand for fishmeal as well.

Menhaden oil has been used for many years as an edible oil in Europe. The oil is refined and used extensively in cooking oils and margarine. In 1989, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that fully and partially hydrogenated menhaden oil is a safe ingredient for human consumption. In 1990, the FDA proposed an amendment based on an industry petition, to the standard of identity for margarine to permit the use of marine oils. It was approved in 1997 and could provide a significant new market for omega-3 rich menhaden oil.

Catches from the menhaden purse seine bait fishery are used by sport fisherman as chum and as cut or live bait for sportfishes such as bluefish, striped bass, weakfish, king mackerel, red drum, shark, and tuna.

Fisheries Management

The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (commission) developed a Fishery Management Plan for Atlantic Menhaden (Plan) in 1981, which was later revised in 1992. Management authority was established in the states because the vast majority of menhaden landings come from state waters. There is a single stock that migrates along the entire Atlantic coast, and every state, except Pennsylvania, has declared interest in the menhaden management program. The management process contained in this Plan relies on six "trigger variables" to determine the "health" of the stock. These include 1) landings in weight; 2) proportion of age 0 fish in landings; 3) proportion of adults (age 3+) in landings: 4) recruits to age 1; 5) spawning stock biomass and; 6) percent maximum spawning potential.

In January 1999, the Commission's Atlantic Menhaden Management Board recommended that the commission begin developing an amendment to the existing 1992 Plan. This action was based upon the results of an external peer review of the Atlantic menhaden stock assessment which recommended major revisions to the Plan. The current Plan, relying on the six "trigger variables" to monitor changes in stock size and recruitment in the population, are based on landings data that do not reflect true trends in the population. In addition, these trigger values do not result in any direct management and/or regulatory action. The Peer Review Panel recommended replacement of several of these triggers with true biological reference points which would respond to the management goals and result in regulatory changes in the menhaden management process. Furthermore, this panel recommended that these reference points should address the ecological role of menhaden as a forage base for other species and as a consumer of phytoplankton. The panel suggested the development of a quota based management system with annual total allowable catch allocated by season and fishing areas. For more information on coastal Atlantic menhaden management, please visit the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) web site.

Recently the ASMFC amended their Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan; however, they did not address the plan's ecological objectives, one of their primary concerns regarding allocation of the stock.

Chesapeake Bay

The Chesapeake Bay is the most important nursery area for juvenile menhaden along the Atlantic coast; they utilize almost the entire Bay and its tributaries. Larvae are pelagic and spend approximately one month in waters over the continental shelf before entering the Bay and moving into lower salinity waters in estuarine tributaries where they metamorphose into juveniles. These juveniles, along with older year classes of Atlantic menhaden remain in the Bay until the fall when most migrate to the ocean. These migrants then move southward and winter offshore south of Cape Hatteras. The following spring they migrate northward to the Chesapeake Bay area and into New England waters.

Atlantic menhaden are the most important and one of the most abundant fish species in the Chesapeake Bay. During summer months, these fish swim in large schools and their silvery bodies can often be seen near the water's surface. Juveniles primarily feed on zooplankton, but adults are mainly herbivores, but retain the ability to feed on zooplankton. The adults are very adaptable and will feed on several species of phytoplankton, as well as suspended organic plant detritus. Atlantic menhaden are an ecologically critical fish species. They consume and redistribute a significant amount of energy within and between the Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, and the coastal ocean. This is due, in part, to their tremendous numbers, individual growth rate, filter feeding capacity, and seasonal movements. An adult fish can filter up to a million gallons of water every 180 days. A healthy Atlantic menhaden population has the potential to consume up to 25% of the Bay's nitrogen in 1-year. Menhaden are also an extremely important prey species for many predatory fish such as striped bass, bluefish, weakfish, and spanish mackerel. Because or their schooling behavior, they are also a favorite target for the common loon, herons, egrets, ospreys, and eagles.

The Atlantic menhaden population has suffered from poor recruitment in the Chesapeake Bay for the past 10 years. Poor reproductive success is at least partially responsible for the decline in menhaden, but the species also suffers from disease and mass mortalities in the bay and other mid-Atlantic estuaries. The commonly observed deep ulcers in menhaden have been attributed to toxic activity of Pfiesteria piscicida, but fungi, protozoan parasites and bacteria also are involved. Large schools of menhaden occasionally are killed in the Bay by low dissolved oxygen episodes related to algae blooms.

Historically Atlantic menhaden were heavily fished along most of the Atlantic coast. A bait fishery for commercial and recreational use still exists along the coast. Purse seine fishing for menhaden takes place along the Atlantic coast and in the Virginia portion of the Chesapeake Bay. In recent years over 50% of the menhaden caught by the reduction industry have been taken from the Chesapeake Bay. Menhaden are captured in pound nets in Maryland's portion of the Bay. The primary gear for harvesting menhaden for the oil and protein meal products is the purse seine. Maryland has prohibited purse seining in state waters (0-3 miles from the coast) and in the Chesapeake Bay since before the 1950s. The use of spotter planes to locate menhaden schools has also been prohibited.

Chesapeake Bay Fisheries Management

The Maryland Department of Natural Resources drafted a biological background section for an Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan in 1996 and various management options were considered; however, no decisions have been made and no documents have been finalized.

The Chesapeake Bay Ecological Foundation requested that the Chesapeake Bay Program consider addressing the issue of developing an Atlantic Menhaden Fishery Management Plan for the Chesapeake Bay on August 21, 1999.